Amazon.com: Marriages and Families, Books a la Carte Edition (8th Edition) (355): Nijole V. Benokraitis: Books.

• • • In the context of, a family (from: familia) is a of affiliated either by (by recognized birth), (by marriage or other relationship), or co-residence (as implied by the etymology of the English word 'family' ) or some combination of these. Members of the may include spouses, parents, brothers, sisters, sons, and daughters. Members of the extended family may include grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, nephews, nieces, and. Sometimes these are also considered members of the immediate family, depending on an individual's specific relationship with them. In most societies, the family is the principal institution for the of children.

As the basic unit for raising children, generally classify most family organizations as (a mother and her children); conjugal (a wife, her husband, and children, also called the ); (for example, a grandparent, a brother, his sister, and her children); or (parents and children co-reside with other members of one parent's family). Sexual relations among the members are regulated by rules concerning such as the. The word 'family' can be used metaphorically to create more inclusive categories such as,,, and. The field of aims to trace family lineages through history. The family is also an important economic unit studied in.

Family of photographed by in 1899 One of the primary functions of the family involves providing a framework for the production and reproduction of persons and socially. This can occur through the sharing of material substances (such as food); the giving and receiving of care and nurture (); jural rights and obligations; and moral and sentimental ties. Thus, one's experience of one's family shifts over time. From the perspective of, the family is a 'family of orientation': the family serves to locate children socially and plays a major role in their and socialization.

From the point of view of the parent(s), the family is a 'family of procreation', the goal of which is to produce and enculturate and socialize children. However, producing children is not the only function of the family; in societies with a sexual division of labor,, and the resulting relationship between two people, it is necessary for the formation of an economically productive. Notes that the western conception of family is ambiguous and confused with the, as revealed in the different contexts in which the word is used. States this confusion is not accidental, but indicative of the familial ideology of, countries that pass social legislation that insists members of a should live together, and that those not so related should not live together; despite the ideological and legal pressures, a large percentage of families do not conform to the ideal nuclear family type. A miner with his children, West Virginia, 1946 Diverse data from, history, law, and social, reveal the human family as a social and not as a biological fact founded on the relationship of. The different types of families occur in a wide variety of settings, and their specific functions and meanings depend largely on their relationship to other social institutions. Although early western and considered family and to be universally associated with relations by 'blood' (based on ideas common in their own cultures) later research has shown that many societies instead understand family through ideas of living together, the sharing of food (e.g.

) and sharing care and. Have a special interest in the function and status of family forms in stratified (especially ) societies. [ ] According to the work of scholars,,, and, the huge transformation that led to modern marriage in Western democracies was 'fueled by the religio-cultural value system provided by elements of, early, Roman Catholic canon law and the '. Much sociological, and research dedicates itself to the understanding of this variation, and of changes in the family that form over time. Levitan claims: 'Times have changed; it is more acceptable and encouraged for mothers to work and fathers to spend more time at home with the children. The way roles are balanced between the parents will help children grow and learn valuable life lessons. There is [the] great importance of communication and equality in families, in order to avoid role strain.'

Conjugal (nuclear or single) family [ ] The term ' is commonly used, especially in the United States of America, to refer to conjugal families. A ' family includes only the husband, the wife, and unmarried children who are not of age. Sociologists distinguish between conjugal families (relatively independent of the kindred of the parents and of other families in general) and nuclear families (which maintain relatively close ties with their kindred). [ ] Other family structures, such as blended parents, single parents, and domestic partnerships have begun to challenge the normality of the nuclear family. Matrifocal family [ ]. Main article: A 'matrifocal' family consists of a and her children.

Generally, these children are her biological offspring, although adoption of children is a practice in nearly every society. This kind of family occurs commonly where women have the resources to rear their children by themselves, or where men are more mobile than women.

As a definition, 'a family or domestic group is matrifocal when it is centred on a woman and her children. In this case, the father(s) of these children are intermittently present in the life of the group and occupy a secondary place.

The children's mother is not necessarily the wife of one of the children's fathers.' Extended family [ ]. A family from Basankusu,. The term ' is also common, especially in the United States.

This term has two distinct meanings: • First, it serves as a synonym of 'consanguinal family' (consanguine means 'of the same blood'). • Second, in societies dominated by the conjugal family, it refers to ' (an egocentric network of relatives that extends beyond the domestic group) who do not belong to the conjugal family. These types refer to ideal or normative structures found in particular societies. Any society will exhibit some variation in the actual composition and conception of families.

Family of choice [ ] The term 'family of choice,' also sometimes referred to as 'chosen family,' is common within the, both in academic literature and in colloquial vocabulary. It refers to the group of people in an individual's life that satisfies the typical role of family as a support system.

Webtogo Mobiles Internet Download here. The term differentiates between the 'family of origin' (the biological family or that in which people are raised) and those that actively assume that ideal role. The family of choice may or may not include some or all of the members of the family of origin.

This terminology stems from the fact that many individuals, upon, face rejection or shame from the families they were raised in. The term family of choice is also used by individuals in the 12 step communities, who create close-knit 'family' ties through the recovery process. Blended family [ ] The term blended family or describes families with mixed parents: one or both parents remarried, bringing children of the former family into the new family.

Also in sociology, particularly in the works of social psychologist, traditional family refers to 'a middle-class family with a bread-winning father and a stay-at-home mother, married to each other and raising their biological children,' and nontraditional to exceptions from this rule. Most of the US households are now non-traditional under this definition. In terms of communication patterns in families, there are a certain set of beliefs within the family that reflect how its members should communicate and interact. These family communication patterns arise from two underlying sets of beliefs. One being conversation orientation (the degree to which the importance of communication is valued) and two, conformity orientation (the degree to which families should emphasize similarities or differences regarding attitudes, beliefs, and values). Monogamous family [ ] A monogamous family is based on a legal or social.

In this case, an individual has only one (official) partner during their lifetime or at any one time (i.e. This means that a person may not have several different legal spouses at the same time, as this is usually prohibited by laws, in jurisdictions that require monogamous marriages. Polygamous family [ ] is a marriage that includes more than two partners.

When a man is married to more than one wife at a time, the relationship is called; and when a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, it is called. If a marriage includes multiple husbands and wives, it can be called,. Is a form of plural marriage, in which a man is allowed more than one wife. In modern countries that permit polygamy, polygyny is typically the only form permitted. Polygyny is practiced primarily (but not only) in parts of the and; and is often associated with, however, there are certain conditions in Islam that must be met to perform polygyny. Is a form of marriage whereby a woman takes two or more husbands at the same time.

Fraternal polyandry, where two or more brothers are married to the same wife, is a common form of polyandry. Polyandry was traditionally practiced in areas of the Himalayan mountains, among Tibetans in, in parts of and in parts of northern. Polyandry is most common in societies marked by high male mortality or where males will often be apart from the rest of the family for a considerable period of time. Kinship terminology [ ] Degrees of kinship [ ]. Family in a wagon, Lee County, Mississippi, August 1935. A first-degree relative is one who shares 50% of your DNA through direct inheritance, such as a full sibling, parent or progeny.

Main article: In his book, anthropologist (1818–1881) performed the first survey of kinship terminologies in use around the world. Although much of his work is now considered dated, he argued that terminologies reflect different sets of distinctions. For example, most kinship terminologies distinguish between sexes (the difference between a brother and a sister) and between generations (the difference between a child and a parent).

Moreover, he argued, kinship terminologies distinguish between relatives by blood and (although recently some anthropologists have argued that many societies define kinship in terms other than 'blood'). Morgan made a distinction between kinship systems that use classificatory terminology and those that use descriptive terminology.

Classificatory systems are generally and erroneously understood to be those that 'class together' with a single term relatives who actually do not have the same type of relationship to ego. (What defines 'same type of relationship' under such definitions seems to be genealogical relationship.

This is problematic given that any genealogical description, no matter how standardized, employs words originating in a folk understanding of kinship.) What Morgan's terminology actually differentiates are those (classificatory) kinship systems that do not distinguish lineal and collateral relationships and those (descriptive) kinship systems that do. Morgan, a lawyer, came to make this distinction in an effort to understand inheritance practices. A Seneca man's effects were inherited by his sisters' children rather than by his own children.

Morgan identified six basic patterns of kinship terminologies: •: only distinguishes relatives based upon sex and generation. •: no two relatives share the same term. •: in addition to distinguishing relatives based upon sex and generation, also distinguishes between lineal relatives and collateral relatives.

•: in addition to sex and generation, also distinguishes between siblings of opposite sexes in the parental generation. •: a matrilineal system with some features of an Iroquois system, but with a 'skewing' feature in which generation is 'frozen' for some relatives. •: like a Crow system but patrilineal. Father and child, Dhaka, Bangladesh Most Western societies employ terminology. [ ] This kinship terminology commonly occurs in societies based on (or ) families, where nuclear families have a degree of relative mobility.

Members of the nuclear use descriptive kinship terms: •: a •: a parent •: a male of the parent(s) •: a female child of the parent(s) •: a male •: a female sibling •: a male •: a female spouse •: the father of a parent •: the mother of a parent •: two people who share at least one in common, but none of the same parents. • (In some language there is a difference between a grandfather/grandmother from the father's side and one from the mother's side) Such systems generally assume that the mother's husband is also the biological father. In some families, a woman may have children with more than one man or a man may have children with more than one woman. The system refers to a child who shares only one parent with another child as a 'half-brother' or 'half-sister'. For children who do not share biological or adoptive parents in common, English-speakers use the term 'stepbrother' or 'stepsister' to refer to their new relationship with each other when one of their biological parents marries one of the other child's biological parents. Any person (other than the biological parent of a child) who marries the parent of that child becomes the 'stepparent' of the child, either the 'stepmother' or 'stepfather'.

The same terms generally apply to children adopted into a family as to children born into the family. In the United States, one in five mothers have children by different fathers; among mothers with two or more children the figure is higher, with 28% having children with at least two different men. Such families are more common among Blacks and Hispanics, and among the lower socioeconomic class.

Typically, societies with conjugal families also favor residence; thus upon marriage, a person separates from the nuclear family of their childhood (family of orientation) and forms a new nuclear family (family of procreation). However, in western society, the single parent family has been growing more accepted and has begun to make an impact on culture. Single parent families are more commonly single mother families than single father. These families sometimes face difficult issues besides the fact that they have to rear their children on their own, for example, low income making it difficult to pay for rent, child care, and other necessities for a healthy and safe home. Members of the nuclear families of members of one's own (former) nuclear family may class as lineal or as collateral.

Main article: Social Darwinists [ ] Early scholars of family history applied 's biological in their theory of evolution of family systems. American anthropologist published in 1877 based on his theory of the three stages of human progress from through to. Morgan's book was the 'inspiration for ' book' published in 1884. Engels expanded Morgan's hypothesis that economical factors caused the transformation of primitive community into a class-divided society.

Engels' theory of control, and later that of, was used to explain the cause and effect of change in family structure and function. The popularity of this theory was largely unmatched until the 1980s, when other sociological theories, most notably, gained acceptance. The nuclear family in industrial society [ ].

Family arrangements in the have become more diverse with no particular household arrangement representing half of the United States population. Contemporary society generally views the family as a haven from the world, supplying absolute fulfillment. Zinn and Eitzen discuss the image of the 'family as haven [.] a place of, and where individuals may the competition of dehumanizing forces in modern society'. During, '[t]he family as a repository of warmth and tenderness (embodied by the mother) stands in opposition to the competitive and aggressive world of commerce (embodied by the father). The family's task was to protect against the outside world.'

However, Zinn and Eitzen note, 'The protective image of the family has waned in recent years as the ideals of family fulfillment have taken shape. Today, the family is more compensatory than protective. It supplies what is vitally needed but missing in other social arrangements.'

'The popular wisdom', according to Zinn and Eitzen, sees the family structures of the past as superior to those today, and families as more stable and happier at a time when they did not have to contend with problems such as illegitimate children and. They respond to this, saying, 'there is no golden age of the family gleaming at us in the far back historical past.'

'Desertion by spouses, illegitimate children, and other conditions that are considered characteristics of modern times existed in the past as well.' The postmodern family [ ]. Percentage of births to unmarried women, selected countries, 1980 and 2007 Others argue that whether or not one views the family as 'declining' depends on one's definition of 'family'. 'Married couples have dropped below half of all American households. This drop is shocking from traditional forms of the family system. Only a fifth of households were following traditional ways of having married couples raising a family together.' In the Western World, marriages are no longer for economic, social or political gain, and children are no longer expected to contribute to family income.

Instead, people choose mates based on. This increased role of love indicates a societal shift toward favoring emotional fulfilment and relationships within a family, and this shift necessarily weakens the institution of the family. Margaret Mead considers the family as a main safeguard to continuing human progress. Observing, 'Human beings have learned, laboriously, to be human', she adds: 'we hold our present form of humanity on trust, [and] it is possible to lose it'. 'It is not without significance that the most successful large-scale abrogations of the family have occurred not among simple savages, living close to the subsistence edge, but among great nations and strong empires, the resources of which were ample, the populations huge, and the power almost unlimited' Many countries (particularly Western) have, in recent years, changed their in order to accommodate diverse family models. For instance, in the United Kingdom, in, the Family Law (Scotland) Act 2006 provides cohabitants with some limited rights. In 2010, Ireland enacted the.

There have also been moves at an international level, most notably, the European Convention on the Legal Status of Children Born out of Wedlock which came into force in 1978. Countries which ratify it must ensure that children born outside marriage are provided with legal rights as stipulated in the text of this Convention. The Convention was ratified by the UK in 1981 and by Ireland in 1988. Oedipal family model and fascism [ ] The model, common in the western societies, of the family triangle, husband-wife-children isolated from the outside, is also called the of the family, and it is a form of family. Many philosophers and psychiatrists have analyzed such a model.

In such a family, they argue, the young develop in a perverse relationship, wherein they learn to love the same person who beats and oppresses them. They believe that young children grow up and develop loving a person who is oppressing them physically or mentally, and that these children are not taught in a way that will raise affectionate children. Such philosophers claim that the family therefore constitutes the first cell of the fascist society, as the children will carry this attitude of love for oppressive figures in their adult life.

They claim that fathers torment their sons. Deleuze and Guattari, in their analysis of the dynamics at work within a family, 'track down all varieties of fascism, from the enormous ones that surround and crush us to the petty ones that constitute the tyrannical bitterness of our everyday lives'. As it has been explained by Deleuze, Guattari and Foucault, as well as other philosophers and psychiatrists such as and, the -family conceived in the West tradition serves the purpose of perpetuating a and society. The child grows according to the oedipal model, which is typical of the structure of capitalist societies, and he becomes in turn owner of children and protector of the woman.

As the young undergoes physical and from someone for whom they develop love, they develop a loving attitude towards authority figures. They will bring such attitude in their adult life, when they will desire and will form docile subjects for society., in his systematic study of, argued that rather than being merely repressed, the desires of the individual are efficiently mobilized and used, to control the individual, alter and control the masses.

Foucault believed, through, and, through, make use of unconscious sex drives. Dominating desire, they dominate individuals. According to the analysis of, in the west: the [conjugal] family organization, precisely to the extent that it was insular and heteromorphous with respect to the other mechanisms, was used to support the great 'maneuvers' employed for the control of the birthrate, for the populationist incitements, for the medicalization of sex and the psychiatrization of its nongenital forms. Main article: Domestic violence (DV) is violence that happens within the family. The legal and social understanding of the concept of DV differs by culture. The definition of the term 'domestic violence' varies, depending on the context in which it is used. It may be defined differently in medical, legal, political or social contexts.

The definitions have varied over time, and vary in different parts of the world. The states that: ' “domestic violence” shall mean all acts of physical, sexual, psychological or economic violence that occur within the family or domestic unit or between former or current spouses or partners, whether or not the perpetrator shares or has shared the same residence with the victim'.

In 1993, the United Nations identified domestic violence as one of three contexts in which occurs, describing it as: 'Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including battering, sexual abuse of female children in the household, -related violence,, and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and violence related to exploitation'. Family violence [ ] Family violence is a broader definition, often used to include,, and other violent acts between family members. Child abuse is defined by the WHO as: 'Child maltreatment, sometimes referred to as child abuse and neglect, includes all forms of physical and emotional ill-treatment, sexual abuse, neglect, and exploitation that results in actual or potential harm to the child’s health, development or dignity. Within this broad definition, five subtypes can be distinguished – physical abuse; sexual abuse; neglect and negligent treatment; emotional abuse; and exploitation.' There exists legislation to prevent and punish the occurrence of these offences. There are laws regarding familial sexual activity, which states that it is a criminal offence to have any kind of sexual relationship between one's grandparent, parent, sibling, aunt or uncle.

Elder abuse is, according to the WHO: 'a single, or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust which causes harm or distress to an older person'. Parental abuse of children (child abuse) [ ]. Main article: Child abuse is the physical, sexual or emotional maltreatment or neglect of a child or children. In the United States, the (CDC) and the Department for Children and Families (DCF) define child maltreatment as any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child. Child abuse can occur in a child's home, or in the organizations, schools or communities the child interacts with.

There are four major categories of child abuse:,,, and. Parental abuse by children [ ].

Main article: Elder abuse is 'a single, or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust, which causes harm or distress to an older person.' This definition has been adopted by the from a definition put forward by Action on Elder Abuse in the UK. Laws protecting the elderly from abuse are similar to, and related to, laws protecting from abuse. The core element to the harm of elder abuse is the 'expectation of trust' of the older person toward their abuser. Thus, it includes harms by people the older person knows or with whom they have a relationship, such as a spouse, partner or family member, a friend or neighbor, or people that the older person relies on for services. Many forms of elder abuse are recognized as types of domestic violence or family violence.

Forced and child marriage [ ]. Main articles: and Forced and child marriages are practiced in certain regions of the world, particularly in and, and these types of marriages are associated with a high rate of domestic violence.

A is a marriage where one or both participants are married without their freely given consent. The line between forced marriage and consensual marriage may become blurred, because the social norms of many cultures dictate that one should never oppose the desire of one's parents/relatives in regard to the choice of a spouse; in such cultures it is not necessary for violence, threats, intimidation etc. To occur, the person simply 'consents' to the marriage even if he/she doesn't want it, out of the implied social pressure and duty. The customs of and, that exist in parts of the world, can lead to buying and selling people into marriage.

A child marriage is a where one or both spouses are under 18. Child marriage was common throughout history but is today condemned by international human rights organizations. Child marriages are often arranged between the families of the future bride and groom, sometimes as soon as the girl is born. Child marriages can also occur in the context of.

The concept of family honor [ ]. Further information: and Family honor is an abstract concept involving the perceived quality of worthiness and respectability that affects the social standing and the self-evaluation of a group of related people, both corporately and individually. The family is viewed as the main source of and the community highly values the relationship between honor and the family. The conduct of family members reflects upon family honor and the way the family perceives itself, and is perceived by others. In maintaining the family honor is often perceived as more important than either, or individual achievement. In extreme cases, engaging in acts that are deemed to tarnish the honor of the family results in. An honor killing is the of a member of a family or social group by other members, due to the perpetrators' belief that the victim has brought shame or dishonor upon the family or community, usually for reasons such as refusing to enter an, being in a relationship that is disapproved by their relatives, having, becoming the victim of, dressing in ways which are deemed inappropriate, or engaging in relations.

Economic issues [ ] A family is often part of a with. Dowry, bride price and dower [ ].

A traditional, formal presentation of the bride price at a Thai engagement ceremony. Dowry is property (money, goods, or estate) that a wife or wife's family gives to her husband when the wife and husband marry.

Offering dowry was common in many cultures historically (including in Europe and North America), but this practice today is mostly restricted to some areas primarily in South Asia (,,, ). Bride price, (also bridewealth or bride token), is property paid by the groom or his family to the parents of a woman upon the marriage of their daughter to the groom. It is practiced mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa, parts of South-East Asia (, ), and parts of Central Asia. Dower is property given to the bride herself by the groom at the time of marriage, and which remains under her ownership and control. Property regimes and taxation [ ] In some countries married couples benefit from various taxation advantages not available to a single person or to unmarried couples. For example, spouses may be allowed to average their combined incomes.

Some jurisdictions recognize or relations for this purposes. In some jurisdictions there is also an option of. Different property regimes exist for spouses. In many countries, each marriage partner has the choice of keeping their property or combining properties. In the latter case, called, when the marriage ends by divorce each owns half. In lieu of a or, property owned by the deceased generally is inherited by the surviving spouse. Rights and laws [ ] Reproductive rights [ ].

Further information:,, and Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and. These include the right to decide on issues regarding the number of children born, family planning, contraception, and private life, free from and; as well as the right to access health services and adequate information. According to, reproductive rights 'include the right to decide the number, timing and spacing of children, the right to voluntarily marry and establish a family, and the right to the highest attainable standard of health, among others'. Refers to the factors that may be considered by individuals and couples in order for them to control their fertility, anticipate and attain the desired number of children and the spacing and timing of their births. The state and church have been, and still are in some countries, involved in controlling the size of families, often using coercive methods, such as bans on contraception or abortion (where the policy is a one - for example through ) or conversely, discriminatory policies against large families or even (e.g., China's in place from 1978 to 2015). Has often targeted ethnic minority groups, such as Roma women in Eastern Europe, or indigenous women in Peru (during the 1990s).

Parents' rights [ ] The movement is a movement whose members are primarily interested in issues affecting parents and children related to family law, specifically parental rights and obligations. Movements focus on, workplace issues such as,, and rights in. The movement is a movement whose members are primarily interested in issues related to, including and, that affect fathers and their.

Children's rights [ ]. Main article: Each jurisdiction has its own. These laws differ significantly from country to country; and these laws are often controversial.

Areas of controversy include as well as. Legal reforms [ ] Legal reforms to have taken place in many countries during the past few decades. These dealt primarily with within marriage and with. Women have been given equal rights in marriage in many countries, reversing older family laws based on the dominant legal role of the husband., which was enshrined in the of England and the US for several centuries and throughout most of the 19th century, was abolished. In some European countries the changes that lead to gender equality were slower. The period of 1975-1979 saw a major overhaul of in countries such as Italy, Spain, Austria, West Germany, and Portugal.

In 1978, the passed the Resolution (78) 37 on equality of spouses in civil law. Among the last European countries to establish full in marriage were Switzerland. In 1985, a referendum guaranteed women legal equality with men within marriage. The new reforms came into force in January 1988.

In Greece, in 1983, legislation was passed guaranteeing equality between spouses, abolishing, and ending legal discrimination against illegitimate children. In 1981, Spain abolished the requirement that married women must have their husbands’ permission to initiate judicial proceedings the Netherlands, and France in the 1980s.

In recent decades, the has also been abolished in African countries that had this doctrine, but many African countries that were former still have discriminatory laws in their marriages regulations, such regulations originating in the that has inspired these laws. In some countries (predominantly Roman Catholic) divorce was legalized only recently (e.g. Italy (1970), Portugal (1975), Brazil (1977), Spain (1981), Argentina (1987), Ireland (1996), Chile (2004) and Malta (2011)) although and were options. Philippines still does not allow divorce. The laws pertaining to the situation of children born outside marriage have also been revised in many countries (see ).

Main article: Maternal mortality or maternal death is defined by WHO as 'the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes.' Historically, maternal mortality was a major cause of women's death. In recent decades, advances in healthcare have resulted in rates of maternal mortality having dropped dramatically, especially in Western countries. Maternal mortality however remains a serious problem in many African and Asian counties. Infant and child mortality [ ].

The Family, a sculpture by, in Family policies differ significantly between countries. Depending on jurisdiction, family policy may have a multiplicity of functions: horizontal redistribution, the enhancement of individual choices, increasing fertility rates, supporting economic growth and productivity, as well as reducing gender inequalities (Ferragina and Seeleib-Kaiser 2015). From a societal perspective, family policies can contribute to 'horizontal redistribution' between generations, as well as between households with and without children; to favour individual choices by supporting the reconciliation between care and paid work; and to reduce the costs of having children and child poverty. From an economic perspective, employment-oriented family policy is part of an overall redesign of geared to foster 'active citizenship', also among mothers who were formerly not employed, through the development of an 'enabling state'.

More generous family policies are said to lead to higher employment rates for women, mitigate the risk of unemployment for mothers after a substantial period of leave, support a social investment strategy, and offset some of the costs of raising children. From many feminist perspectives, family policies should aim at equalising opportunities between men and women through de-familialising care, encouraging men's involvement in care work, and facilitating employment opportunities for women. Profound social, economic, and cultural changes have led in many societies to the decline of the 'male breadwinner model' and the move towards a variety of 'adult worker models' (Daly 2011). Nevertheless, family policy expansion has not always fundamentally challenged gender inequalities: overall men have not increased their contribution to care work sufficiently to 'compensate' for women's increased labour force participation and slightly reduced participation in care.

In an era of perceived permanent austerity and overall welfare state retrenchment, rich OECD countries have not been prevented from expanding family policies (Ferragina and Seeleib-Kaiser 2015). In fact, in many of these countries there has been an expansion of family policies, leading to a socialisation of family care responsibilities, traditionally disproportionately performed by women (Daly and Lewis 2000). Although at the institutional policy level, the expansion of family policy might be characterised as a 'silent revolution', relevant for gender equality, a cautious interpretation might be necessary: gender inequalities in income, opportunities, leisure and other significant outcomes remain and are sometimes sustained by policy, even if there is an observed shift in their character towards support for women's employment (Ferragina and Seeleib-Kaiser 2015). The policy shift has been particularly significant in countries that had previously emphasised more conservative approaches to family policies, such as Germany, Ireland, Japan, and Norway. Hence, it can no longer be assumed that in the majority of rich OECD countries care for young children will be mainly provided through unpaid work within the family. Nevertheless, a certain number of countries still fail to provide adequate childcare arrangements, constituting a barrier for full-time maternal employment.

Furthermore, in some countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, gender discrimination continues to strongly intersect with class; high childcare costs constitute a disincentive to labour force participation, especially among less educated and unskilled women (Esping-Andersen 2009). This means that higher-class and more educated women tend to have better opportunities than women belonging to a lower social class. Partisanship and women's political agency have been the main drivers for family policy change during the 1980s and 1990s in many countries. For the 2000s, however, the importance of these drivers has significantly declined. As societal preferences have undergone profound changes — to some extent driven by the activities of women's equality movements, as well as by the experience of women's employment — the policy preferences of voters have also changed.

Electorates in western democracies increasingly want policies supporting 'modern' family lifestyles which depend on women's employment (Ferragina and Seeleib-Kaiser 2015). As political parties react to these changed policy preferences, the traditional differences in family policy positions between political parties decline. The extent to which this translates into support for gender equality, and how such equality might be defined, is as yet not decided.

However, societal policy preferences, long believed to be set in stone, are undergoing profound changes; and public opinion increasingly matters for changing policies. The changed policy preferences are also mirrored in new political discourses that prioritise social investment and the preservation of the human capital of women, especially of those who are highly skilled. The expansion of family policies geared to supporting women's employment and investment in children is very likely to continue in western democracies.(Ferragina and Seeleib-Kaiser 2015).

While in many parts of the world family policies seek to promote a gender-equal organization of the family life, in others the male-dominated family continues to be the official policy of the authorities, which is also supported by law. For instance, the Civil Code of states at Article 1105: 'In relations between husband and wife; the position of the head of the family is the exclusive right of the husband'. In some parts of the world, some governments promote a specific form of family, such as that based on traditional.

The term 'family values' is often used in political discourse in some countries, its general meaning being that of traditional or cultural values that pertain to the family's structure, function, roles, beliefs, attitudes, and ideals, usually involving the 'traditional family' - a family with a breadwinner father and a homemaker mother, raising their biological children. Any deviation from this family model is considered a 'nontraditional family'. These family ideals are often advanced through policies such as.

Some jurisdictions outlaw practices which they deem as socially or religiously unacceptable, such as,. Work-family balance [ ]. Further information: and Work-family balance is a concept involving proper prioritizing between work/career and family life. It includes issues relating to the way how work and families intersect and influence each other. At a political level, it is reflected through policies such and.

Since the 1950s, social scientists as well as feminists have increasingly criticized gendered arrangements of work and care, and the male breadwinner role, and policies are increasingly targeting men as fathers, as a tool of changing gender relations. Protection of private and family life [ ] Article 8 of the provides a right to respect for one's 'private and family life, his home and his ', subject to certain restrictions that are 'in accordance with law' and 'necessary in a democratic society'. “ Article 8 – Right to respect for private and family life 1. Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence. There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.

” Criticism [ ] Certain social scientists have advocated the abolition of the family. An early opponent of the family was Socrates whose position was outlined by Plato in The Republic. In Book 5 of The Republic, Socrates tells his interlocutors that a is one in which citizens have no family ties. The family being such a deep-rooted and much-venerated institution, few intellectuals have ventured to speak against it. Has been atypically defined as a “social structure where a family's values are held in higher esteem than the values of the individual members of the family.” granted to relatives regardless of is called. The Russian-American and philosopher, novelist and playwright compared partiality towards with, as a small-scale manifestation of the latter. “The worship of the family is merely racism, like a crudely primitive first installment on the worship of the tribe.

It places the above a man's values and duty to the tribe above a man's right to his own life.” Additionally, she spoke in favor of lifestyle, while following it herself. The British, poet, mountaineer and occultist censured the institution of family in his works: “Horrid word, family! Its very accuses it of servility and stagnation. / Latin,, a servant; Oscan,, he dwells. [T]hink what horrid images it evokes from the mind. Not only; wherever the family has been strong, it has always been an engine of tyranny.

Weak members or weak neighbours: it is the mob spirit crushing, or overwhelming opposition by brute arithmetic. In every, or similar system, it is invariably the first condition which the Aspirant must fulfill: he must once and for all and for ever put his family outside his magical circle.” The American journalist considers family to be overrated. “Politicians, clerics, and just plain folks extol family as our most important institution. / I believe family is overrated. So many people suffer inordinately from family. / Millions of people don't even speak with a family member.

Millions more spend years and fortunes on, trying to undo the ills that family perpetrated on them. / All this shouldn’t be surprising.

After all, unlike with friends, we are placed in our family of origin at random, with no say in the matter.” The family and social justice [ ] One of the controversies regarding the family is the application of the concept of to the private sphere of family relations, in particular with regard to the and. Throughout much of the history, most philosophers who advocated for social justice focused on the public political arena, not on the family structures; with the family often being seen as a separate entity which needed to be protected from outside state intrusion. One notable exception was, who, in his work, advocated for greater rights for women within marriage and family. Second wave feminists argued that, stating that there are strong connections between personal experiences and the larger social and political structures.

In the context of the feminist movement of the 1960s and 1970s, this was a challenge to the and, as they were understood then. Feminists focused on, arguing that the reluctance - in law or in practice - of the state to intervene and offer protection to women who have been abused within the family, is in violation of women's, and is the result of an ideology which places family relations outside the conceptual framework of human rights. Global trends in family composition [ ] In 2015, Nicholas Eberstadt, political economist at the in Washington, described a 'global flight from family' in an opinion piece in the. Statistics from an infographic by Olivier Ballou showed that, In 2013, just over 40% of US babies were born outside marriage.

The Census bureau estimated that 27% of all children lived in a fatherless home. Europe has seen a surge in child-free adults.

One in five 40-something women are childless in Sweden and in Switzerland, in Italy one in four, in Berlin one in three. So-called traditional societies are seeing the same trend. About one-sixth of Japanese women in their forties have never married and about 30% of all woman that age are childless.