A modern scientific calculator with a LCD. An electronic calculator is typically a portable used to perform, ranging from basic to complex. The first electronic calculator was created in the early 1960s. The pocket sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the first, the, developed by for the Japanese calculator company. They later became used commonly within the (oil and gas). Modern calculators vary: from cheap, give-away, models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers.

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They became popular in the mid-1970s (as made their size and cost small). By the end of that decade, calculator prices had reduced to a point where a basic calculator was affordable to most and they became common in. Computer as far back as have included interactive calculator such as and, and calculator functions are included in almost all (PDA) type devices (save a few dedicated address book and dictionary devices). In addition to general purpose calculators, there are those designed for specific. For example, there are which include and calculations. Some calculators even have the ability to do. Can be used to graph functions defined on the real line, or higher-dimensional.

As of 2016, basic calculators cost little, but the and models tend to cost more. In 1986, calculators still represented an estimated 41% of the world's general-purpose hardware capacity to compute information. By 2007, this diminished to less than 0.05%. Scientific calculator displays of fractions and decimal equivalents. Input calculators contain a with for and operations; some even contain '00' and '000' buttons to make larger or smaller easier to enter. Most basic calculators assign only one digit or operation on each button; however, in more specific calculators, a button can perform multi-function working with. Display output Calculators usually have (LCD) as output in place of historical (LED) displays and (VFD); details are provided in the section.

Large-sized and separators are often used to improve readability. Various symbols for may also be shown on the display. Such as ​ 1⁄ 3 are displayed as decimal, for example rounded to 0.33333333.

Also, some (such as ​ 1⁄ 7, which is 0.5714; to 14 ) can be difficult to recognize in form; as a result, many calculators are able to work in. Memory Calculators also have the ability to store numbers into. Basic calculators usually store only one number at a time; more specific types are able to store many numbers represented in. The variables can also be used for constructing. Some models have the ability to extend capacity to store more numbers; the extended is termed an index.

Power source Power sources of calculators are:, or (for old models), turning on with a or button. Some models even have no turn-off button but they provide some way to put off (for example, leaving no operation for a moment, covering exposure, or closing their ).

-powered calculators were also common in the early computer era. Key layout The following keys are common to most pocket calculators. While the arrangement of the digits is standard, the positions of other keys vary from model to model; the illustration is an example. Usual basic pocket calculator layout MC MR M− M+ C ±% √ 7 8 9 ÷ 4 5 6 × 1 2 3 − 0. = + MC or CM Memory Clear MR, RM, or MRC Memory Recall M− Memory Subtraction M+ Memory Addition C or AC All Clear CE Clear (last) Entry; sometimes called CE/C: a first press clears the last entry (CE), a second press clears all (C) ± or CHS Toggle positive/negative number aka CHange Sign% ÷ × − +. √ = Result Internal workings In general, a basic calculator consists of the following components: • Power source (, and/or ) • (input device) – consists of keys used to input numbers and function commands (,,, etc.) • Display panel (output device) – displays input numbers, commands and results. (LCDs), (VFDs), and (LED) displays use to represent each in a basic calculator.

Advanced calculators may use displays. • A printing calculator, in addition to a display panel, has a printing unit that prints results in ink onto a roll of paper, using a printing mechanism. • Processor ( or ). Processor chip's contents Unit Function Scanning () unit When a calculator is powered on, it scans the waiting to pick up an when a key is pressed.

Unit Converts the and into. X and Y register They are number stores where numbers are stored temporarily while doing calculations. All numbers go into the X register first; the number in the X register is shown on the display.

The function for the calculation is stored here until the calculator needs it. Permanent () The instructions for in-built functions (,,,, etc.) are stored here in form. These instructions are, stored permanently, and cannot be erased.

User memory () The store where numbers can be stored by the user. User memory contents can be changed or erased by the user. (ALU) The ALU executes all and, and provides the results in form.

Unit Converts into numbers which can be displayed on the display unit. Of a processor refers to the frequency at which the (CPU) is running. It is used as an indicator of the processor's speed, and is measured in clock cycles per second or the unit.

For basic calculators, the speed can vary from a few hundred to the range. An office calculating machine with a paper printer. Example A basic explanation as to how calculations are performed in a simple 4-function calculator: To perform the calculation 25 + 9, one presses keys in the following sequence on most calculators: 2 5 + 9 =. • When 2 5 is entered, it is picked up by the scanning unit; the number 25 is encoded and sent to the X register; • Next, when the + key is pressed, the ' instruction is also encoded and sent to the flag or; • The second number 9 is encoded and sent to the X register. This 'pushes' (shifts) the first number out into the Y register; • When the = key is pressed, a 'message' (signal) from the flag or tells the permanent or that the operation to be done is '; • The numbers in the X and Y registers are then loaded into the and the calculation is carried out following instructions from the permanent or; • The answer, 34 is sent (shifted) back to the X register.

From there, it is converted by the unit into a decimal number (usually ), and then shown on the display panel. Other functions are usually performed using repeated additions or subtractions. Numeric representation. Main article: Most pocket calculators do all their calculations in BCD rather than a.

BCD is common in electronic systems where a numeric value is to be displayed, especially in systems consisting solely of digital logic, and not containing a microprocessor. By employing BCD, the manipulation of numerical data for display can be greatly simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit. This matches much more closely the physical reality of display hardware—a designer might choose to use a series of separate identical to build a metering circuit, for example.

If the numeric quantity were stored and manipulated as pure binary, interfacing to such a display would require complex circuitry. Therefore, in cases where the calculations are relatively simple, working throughout with BCD can lead to a simpler overall system than converting to and from binary. The same argument applies when hardware of this type uses an embedded microcontroller or other small processor. Often, smaller code results when representing numbers internally in BCD format, since a conversion from or to binary representation can be expensive on such limited processors. For these applications, some small processors feature BCD arithmetic modes, which assist when writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities. Where calculators have added functions (such as square root, or ), software are required to produce high precision results. Sometimes significant design effort is needed to fit all the desired functions in the limited memory space available in the calculator, with acceptable calculation time.

Calculators compared to computers. This section does not any. Unsourced material may be challenged and. (March 2009) () The fundamental difference between a calculator and is that a computer can be in a way that allows the to take different, while calculators are pre-designed with specific functions (such as,, and ) built in. The distinction is not clear-cut: some devices classed as have functions, sometimes with support for (such as or ).

For instance, instead of a hardware multiplier, a calculator might implement mathematics with code in (ROM), and compute with the algorithm because CORDIC does not require much multiplication. Logic designs are more common in calculators whereas designs dominate general-purpose computers, because a bit serial design minimizes complexity, but takes many more. This distinction blurs with high-end calculators, which use processor chips associated with computer and embedded systems design, more so the,, and architectures, and some custom designs specialized for the calculator market.

History Precursors to the electronic calculator. 17th century mechanical calculators. In 1642, the saw the invention of the (by and several decades later ), a device that was at times somewhat over-promoted as being able to perform all four operations with minimal human intervention.

Could add and subtract two numbers directly and thus, if the tedium could be borne, multiply and divide by repetition. Schickard's machine, constructed several decades earlier, used a clever set of mechanised multiplication tables to ease the process of multiplication and division with the adding machine as a means of completing this operation. (Because they were different inventions with different aims a debate about whether Pascal or Schickard should be credited as the 'inventor' of the adding machine (or calculating machine) is probably pointless. ) Schickard and Pascal were followed by who spent forty years designing a four-operation mechanical calculator, inventing in the process his, but who couldn't design a fully operational machine. There were also five unsuccessful attempts to design a calculating clock in the 17th century. The Grant mechanical calculating machine, 1877.

The 18th century saw the arrival of some interesting improvements, first by with the first fully functional calculating clock and four-operation machine, but these machines were almost always one of the kind. It was not until the 19th century and the that real developments began to occur. Although machines capable of performing all four arithmetic functions existed prior to the 19th century, the refinement of manufacturing and fabrication processes during the eve of the industrial revolution made large scale production of more compact and modern units possible. The, invented in 1820 as a four-operation mechanical calculator, was released to production in 1851 as an adding machine and became the first commercially successful unit; forty years later, by 1890, about 2,500 arithmometers had been sold plus a few hundreds more from two arithmometer clone makers (Burkhardt, Germany, 1878 and Layton, UK, 1883) and Felt and Tarrant, the only other competitor in true commercial production, had sold 100. Patent image of the Clarke graph-based calculator, 1921. It wasn't until 1902 that the familiar push-button user interface was developed, with the introduction of the Dalton Adding Machine, developed by James L. Dalton in the.

In 1921, invented the 'Clarke calculator', a simple graph-based calculator for solving line equations involving hyperbolic functions. This allowed electrical engineers to simplify calculations for and in. The was developed in 1948 and, although costly, became popular for its portability. This purely mechanical hand-held device could do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

By the early 1970s electronic pocket calculators ended manufacture of mechanical calculators, although the Curta remains a popular collectable item. Development of electronic calculators The first computers, using firstly and later in the logic circuits, appeared in the 1940s and 1950s. This technology was to provide a stepping stone to the development of electronic calculators. The Computer Company, in, released the Model 14-A calculator in 1957, which was the world's first all-electric (relatively) compact calculator. It did not use electronic logic but was based on technology, and was built into a desk. Early calculator (LED) display from the 1970s (). In October 1961, the world's first all-electronic desktop calculator, the British /Sumlock Comptometer ( A New Inspiration To Arithmetic/ Accounting) was announced.

This machine used, cold-cathode tubes and in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode tubes for its display. Two models were displayed, the Mk VII for continental Europe and the Mk VIII for Britain and the rest of the world, both for delivery from early 1962. The Mk VII was a slightly earlier design with a more complicated mode of multiplication, and was soon dropped in favour of the simpler Mark VIII. The ANITA had a full keyboard, similar to mechanical of the time, a feature that was unique to it and the later CS-10A among electronic calculators. The ANITA weighed roughly 33 pounds (15 kg) due to its large tube system.

Bell Punch had been producing key-driven mechanical calculators of the comptometer type under the names 'Plus' and 'Sumlock', and had realised in the mid-1950s that the future of calculators lay in electronics. They employed the young graduate Norbert Kitz, who had worked on the early British computer project, to lead the development. The ANITA sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick. The tube technology of the ANITA was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. Manufactured EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a 5-inch (13 cm) (CRT), and introduced (RPN) to the calculator market for a price of $2200, which was about three times the cost of an electromechanical calculator of the time. Like Bell Punch, Friden was a manufacturer of mechanical calculators that had decided that the future lay in electronics.

In 1964 more all-transistor electronic calculators were introduced: introduced the, which weighed 25 kilograms (55 lb) and cost 500,000 yen ($4595.89), and of Italy introduced the IME 84, to which several extra keyboard and display units could be connected so that several people could make use of it (but apparently not at the same time). There followed a series of electronic calculator models from these and other manufacturers, including,,, (Smith-Corona-Marchant),,, and. The early calculators used hundreds of, which were cheaper than, on multiple circuit boards. Display types used were, cold-cathode, and. Memory technology was usually based on the or the, though the Toshiba 'Toscal' BC-1411 appears to have used an early form of built from discrete components.

Already there was a desire for smaller and less power-hungry machines. The was introduced in late 1965; it was a stored program machine which could read and write magnetic cards and displayed results on its built-in printer. Memory, implemented by an acoustic delay line, could be partitioned between program steps, constants, and data registers. Programming allowed conditional testing and programs could also be overlaid by reading from magnetic cards.

It is regarded as the first personal computer produced by a company (that is, a desktop electronic calculating machine programmable by non-specialists for personal use). The Olivetti Programma 101 won many industrial design awards.

The Bulgarian from 1965. Another calculator introduced in 1965 was, developed by the Central Institute for Calculation Technologies and built at the Elektronika factory in. The name derives from ELektronen KAlkulator, and it weighed around 8 kg (18 lb). It is the first calculator in the world which includes the function.

Later that same year were released the (with a luminescent display) and the ELKA 25, with an in-built printer. Several other models were developed until the first pocket model, the, was released in 1974. The writing on it was in, and it was exported to western countries. The programmable calculator came on the market in 1967.

A large, printing, desk-top unit, with an attached floor-standing logic tower, it could be programmed to perform many computer-like functions. However, the only branch instruction was an implied unconditional branch (GOTO) at the end of the operation stack, returning the program to its starting instruction. Thus, it was not possible to include any (IF-THEN-ELSE) logic. During this era, the absence of the conditional branch was sometimes used to distinguish a programmable calculator from a computer. Time Life Classic Soft Rock Rapidshare Movies here. The first handheld calculator was a prototype called 'Cal Tech', whose development was led by at in 1967. It could add, multiply, subtract, and divide, and its output device was a paper tape.

1970s to mid-1980s The electronic calculators of the mid-1960s were large and heavy desktop machines due to their use of hundreds of on several circuit boards with a large power consumption that required an AC power supply. There were great efforts to put the logic required for a calculator into fewer and fewer (chips) and calculator electronics was one of the leading edges of development. Semiconductor manufacturers led the world in (LSI) semiconductor development, squeezing more and more functions into individual integrated circuits. This led to alliances between Japanese calculator manufacturers and U.S. Semiconductor companies: with, (later renamed ) with North-American Rockwell Microelectronics (later renamed ), with and, and with. Pocket calculators. 'Pocket calculator' redirects here.

For the song, see. By 1970, a calculator could be made using just a few chips of low power consumption, allowing portable models powered from rechargeable batteries.

The first portable calculators appeared in Japan in 1970, and were soon marketed around the world. These included the ICC-0081 'Mini Calculator', the Pocketronic, and the 'micro Compet'. The Canon Pocketronic was a development of the 'Cal-Tech' project which had been started at in 1965 as a research project to produce a portable calculator. The Pocketronic has no traditional display; numerical output is on thermal paper tape.

As a result of the 'Cal-Tech' project, Texas Instruments was granted master patents on portable calculators. Sharp put in great efforts in size and power reduction and introduced in January 1971 the, also marketed as the Facit 1111, which was close to being a pocket calculator. It weighed 1.59 pounds (721 grams), had a vacuum fluorescent display, rechargeable batteries, and initially sold for US $395. However, the efforts in culminated in the introduction in early 1971 of the first 'calculator on a chip', the MK6010 by, followed by Texas Instruments later in the year. Although these early hand-held calculators were very costly, these advances in electronics, together with developments in display technology (such as the,, and ), led within a few years to the cheap pocket calculator available to all. And also introduced their first collaboration in ICs, a full single chip calculator IC for the Monroe Royal Digital III calculator.

Pico was a spinout by five GI design engineers whose vision was to create single chip calculator ICs. Pico and GI went on to have significant success in the burgeoning handheld calculator market. The first truly pocket-sized electronic calculator was the LE-120A 'HANDY', which was marketed early in 1971.

Made in Japan, this was also the first calculator to use an LED display, the first hand-held calculator to use a single integrated circuit (then proclaimed as a 'calculator on a chip'), the MK6010, and the first electronic calculator to run off replaceable batteries. Using four AA-size cells the LE-120A measures 4.9 by 2.8 by 0.9 inches (124 mm × 71 mm × 23 mm). The first European-made pocket-sized calculator, DB 800 is made in May 1971 by in, (former ) with four functions and an eight-digit display and special characters for a negative number and a warning that the calculation has too many digits to display. The first American-made pocket-sized calculator, the Bowmar 901B (popularly termed The Bowmar Brain), measuring 5.2 by 3.0 by 1.5 inches (132 mm × 76 mm × 38 mm), came out in the Autumn of 1971, with four functions and an eight-digit red display, for $240, while in August 1972 the four-function became the first slimline pocket calculator measuring 5.4 by 2.2 by 0.35 inches (137.2 mm × 55.9 mm × 8.9 mm) and weighing 2.5 ounces (71 g). It retailed for around £79 ($106.67). By the end of the decade, similar calculators were priced less than £5 ($6.75).

The first made pocket-sized calculator, the Elektronika B3-04 was developed by the end of 1973 and sold at the start of 1974. One of the first low-cost calculators was the, launched in August 1973. It retailed for £29.95 ($40.44), or £5 ($6.75) less in kit form. The Sinclair calculators were successful because they were far cheaper than the competition; however, their design led to slow and inaccurate computations of. Meanwhile, (HP) had been developing a pocket calculator.

Launched in early 1972, it was unlike the other basic four-function pocket calculators then available in that it was the first pocket calculator with scientific functions that could replace a. The $395, along with nearly all later HP engineering calculators, used (RPN), also called postfix notation. A calculation like '8 plus 5' is, using RPN, performed by pressing '8', 'Enter↑', '5', and '+'; instead of the algebraic: '8', '+', '5', '='. It had 35 buttons and was based on Mostek Mk6020 chip. The first Soviet scientific pocket-sized calculator the 'B3-18' was completed by the end of 1975.

In 1973, (TI) introduced the, ( SR signifying ) an algebraic entry pocket calculator using for $150. Shortly after the featured an added key for entering (π). It was followed the next year by the which added log and trig functions to compete with the HP-35, and in 1977 the mass-marketed line which is still produced. In 1978 a new company, arose which focused on specialized markets.

Their first calculator, the Loan Arranger (1978) was a pocket calculator marketed to the Real Estate industry with preprogrammed functions to simplify the process of calculating payments and future values. In 1985, CI launched a calculator for the construction industry called the Construction Master which came preprogrammed with common construction calculations (such as angles, stairs, roofing math, pitch, rise, run, and feet-inch fraction conversions). This would be the first in a line of construction related calculators. A calculator which runs on solar and battery power. Through the 1970s the hand-held electronic calculator underwent rapid development.

The red LED and blue/green consumed a lot of power and the calculators either had a short battery life (often measured in hours, so rechargeable were common) or were large so that they could take larger, higher capacity batteries. In the early 1970s (LCDs) were in their infancy and there was a great deal of concern that they only had a short operating lifetime. Busicom introduced the Busicom LE-120A 'HANDY' calculator, the first pocket-sized calculator and the first with an display, and announced the Busicom LC with LCD. However, there were problems with this display and the calculator never went on sale. The first successful calculators with LCDs were manufactured by and sold from 1972 by other companies under such names as: Dataking LC-800, Harden DT/12, Ibico 086, Lloyds 40, Lloyds 100, Prismatic 500 (a.k.a. P500), Rapid Data Rapidman 1208LC. The LCDs were an early form using the Dynamic Scattering Mode DSM with the numbers appearing as bright against a dark background.

To present a high-contrast display these models illuminated the LCD using a filament lamp and solid plastic light guide, which negated the low power consumption of the display. These models appear to have been sold only for a year or two. A more successful series of calculators using a reflective DSM-LCD was launched in 1972 by with the Sharp EL-805, which was a slim pocket calculator.

This, and another few similar models, used Sharp's Calculator On Substrate (COS) technology. An extension of one glass plate needed for the liquid crystal display was used as a substrate to mount the needed chips based on a new hybrid technology. The COS technology may have been too costly since it was only used in a few models before Sharp reverted to conventional circuit boards. Credit-card-sized, solar-powered calculator by (1987) In the mid-1970s the first calculators appeared with field-effect, twisted nematic (TN) LCDs with dark numerals against a grey background, though the early ones often had a yellow filter over them to cut out damaging rays.

The advantage of LCDs is that they are passive light modulators reflecting light, which require much less power than light-emitting displays such as LEDs or VFDs. This led the way to the first credit-card-sized calculators, such as the Mini Card LC-78 of 1978, which could run for months of normal use on button cells. There were also improvements to the electronics inside the calculators. All of the logic functions of a calculator had been squeezed into the first 'calculator on a chip' (ICs) in 1971, but this was leading edge technology of the time and yields were low and costs were high. Many calculators continued to use two or more ICs, especially the scientific and the programmable ones, into the late 1970s.

The power consumption of the integrated circuits was also reduced, especially with the introduction of technology. Appearing in the Sharp 'EL-801' in 1972, the in the logic cells of CMOS ICs only used any appreciable power when they changed state. The and displays often required added driver transistors or ICs, whereas the LCDs were more amenable to being driven directly by the calculator IC itself.

With this low power consumption came the possibility of using as the power source, realised around 1978 by calculators such as the Royal Solar 1, Sharp EL-8026, and Teal Photon. The interior of a newer (ca. 2000) pocket calculator. It uses a button battery in combination with a solar cell. The processor is a 'Chip on Board' type, covered with dark. Mass market phase At the start of the 1970s, hand-held electronic calculators were very costly, at two or three weeks' wages, and so were a luxury item.

The high price was due to their construction requiring many mechanical and electronic components which were costly to produce, and production runs that were too small to exploit economies of scale. Many firms saw that there were good profits to be made in the calculator business with the margin on such high prices. However, the cost of calculators fell as components and their production methods improved, and the effect of economies of scale was felt.

By 1976, the cost of the cheapest four-function pocket calculator had dropped to a few dollars, about 1/20th of the cost five years before. The results of this were that the pocket calculator was affordable, and that it was now difficult for the manufacturers to make a profit from calculators, leading to many firms dropping out of the business or closing down. The firms that survived making calculators tended to be those with high outputs of higher quality calculators, or producing high-specification scientific and programmable calculators. [ ] Mid-1980s to present. The was a programmable RPN-style calculator that accepted extension modules; it was manufactured in the from 1985 to 1992 The first calculator capable of symbolic computing was the, released in 1987. It could, for example, solve quadratic equations symbolically. The first was the released in 1985.

The two leading manufacturers, HP and TI, released increasingly feature-laden calculators during the 1980s and 1990s. At the turn of the millennium, the line between a graphing calculator and a was not always clear, as some very advanced calculators such as the, the and could and, solve, run and software, and connect by wire or to other calculators/computers. The financial calculator is still produced. It was introduced in 1981 and is still being made with few changes. The HP 12c featured the mode of data entry. In 2003 several new models were released, including an improved version of the HP 12c, the 'HP 12c platinum edition' which added more memory, more built-in functions, and the addition of the algebraic mode of data entry.

Competed with the in the mortgage and real estate markets by differentiating the key labeling; changing the “I”, “PV”, “FV” to easier labeling terms such as 'Int', 'Term', 'Pmt', and not using the. However, CI's more successful calculators involved a line of construction calculators, which evolved and expanded in the 1990s to present. According to Mark Bollman, a mathematics and calculator historian and associate professor of mathematics at Albion College, the 'Construction Master is the first in a long and profitable line of CI construction calculators' which carried them through the 1980s, 1990s, and to the present. Personal computers often come with a calculator utility program that emulates the appearance and functions of a calculator, using the to portray a calculator. One such example is. Most (PDAs) and also have such a feature. Use in education In most countries, use calculators for schoolwork.

There was some initial resistance to the idea out of fear that basic or skills would suffer. There remains disagreement about the importance of the ability to perform calculations in the head, with some curricula restricting calculator use until a certain level of proficiency has been obtained, while others concentrate more on teaching methods and problem-solving. Research suggests that inadequate guidance in the use of calculating tools can restrict the kind of mathematical thinking that students engage in. Others have argued [ ] that calculator use can even cause core mathematical skills to atrophy, or that such use can prevent understanding of advanced algebraic concepts. In December 2011 the 's,, voiced concern that children can become 'too dependent' on the use of calculators. As a result, the use of calculators is to be included as part of a review of the.

In United States, many math educators and boards of education enthusiastically endorsed the (NCTM) standards and actively promoted the use of classroom calculators from kindergarten through high school. This article's use of may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines.

Please by removing or external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into. (June 2014) () • – at TI website • – From Sharp's web presentation of its history; including a picture of the CS-10A desktop calculator • • – Documents the technology of desktop calculators, mainly early electronics • • – Shows the development from mechanical calculators to pocket electronic calculators • () • • – A thorough analysis of the HP-35 firmware including the Cordic algorithms and the bugs in the early ROM • – The story of the first electronic desktop calculator • – List of calculator manufacturers • (in Japanese) - Shows mainly Japanese calculators but also others.

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